Abstract
This paper
discusses the poem Sailing to Byzantium and the life of its author, William Butler Yeats. The first section of the
paper examines the causes of Yeats despair while living in London, and the effects he suffers from these life experiences.
These causes include the nature of Yeats’ religious identity, his love affair with Maud Gonne, and his estrangement
from Ireland. Next, a review of the poem reveals Yeats’ emotional, intellectual, and spiritual state of mind at the
time of its writing. This includes an assessment of Yeats’ life experiences, and the corresponding situations he creates
in Byzantium. The discussion also focuses on Modernist themes such as alienation, introspection, sickness and decay, fracturing
of reality, and non-traditional forms of self-expression. Additionally, there is a discussion of such ‘Yeatsian’
themes as Unity of Being, immortality, purification of the soul, loyalty to Ireland, and supremacy of art. Finally, a conclusion
section summarizes the main topics, and offers insights into Yeats’ spirituality, and his unique form of mysticism.
Sailing
to Byzantium is one of Yeats’ most inspired works, and its thought-provoking images invite the reader to interpret
its meaning. According to Notopoulus, “How Byzantium entered into the mind of Yeats and became the singing master of
his soul is an entangled skein, as any analysis of the poetic imagination must be” (1959, p. 315). In this poem, Yeats
resolves artistic frustrations and personal disappointments he is struggling with throughout his life. However, despite years
of unhappiness, he remains faithful to Modernist ideals such as self-expression, radical innovation, and rebellion against
cultural norms. According to Schwartz,
Yeats
dealt with such characteristically modernist themes as alienation and the problems of integrating artistic expression and
individual, spiritual fulfillment into what he perceived to be a highly materialistic, depersonalizing society in which the
arts were marginalized from the mainstream of communal activity. (1995, p. 80)
It is important to understand Yeats’ life experiences to know
why he feels alienated, unloved, and lost. His personal experiences form the basis of his Modernist attitudes, and he expresses
his introspective views in poems, books and plays.
Beginning in childhood, Yeats’ father does not accept Christianity, and he grows-up without a religious identity (2008,
Sila). His family is living in a religious community, and Yeats feels alienated from his friends and neighbors (2008). Since
the local Church is the center of community worship and social activities, he has no sense of belonging to a like-minded group.
Subsequently, Yeats embarks upon a life-long quest to fill this spiritual void, and he investigates mysticism and esoteric
philosophy. According to Notopoulus,
With
him [Yeats] it took the form of dabbling with fairies and all kinds of extra-sensory perceptions, and finally constructing
an elaborate theosophical cosmogony out of whole cobwebs – correspondences, Paracelsian in their dependence upon analogies.
(1959, p. 317)
Later in life,
when Yeats rejects Christianity in favor of mysticism, he moves away from cultural and societal norms (Allen, 1973, p. 54).
His ‘eccentric’ esoteric beliefs contribute to his sense of alienation from the majority – the Christian
world. In addition to feeling alienated on a spiritual level, Yeats feels unloved and rejected in his love life. His feelings
of alienation are reinforced by his one-sided love affair with political activist Maud Gonne (2008, Sila). For three decades
Yeats tries persuading Gonne to marry him, but she constantly turns him down (Dwyer, 2008). Subsequently, he feels frustrated,
lonely, and alienated by his failure to win her over. According to Hinterholtzer,
Yeats really loved Maud Gonne. She was the love of his life, and still,
she would never really react to, let alone return his love. Yeats has experienced the many different facets of love through
this continuous interaction between his everlasting true and sincere affection and dedication and her cold and calculating
rejection. (2007, p. 1)
In
desperation, Yeats asks Gonne’s daughter to marry him, and suffers yet another humiliating rejection (Brown, 2003).
It is not until 1918, at the age of fifty-three, that he finally marries Georgie Hyde-Lees. Subsequently, the couple moves
to Dublin where Yeats writes most of his best work and becomes politically active (2003). However, for many years prior, Yeats
lives in London and feels detached from his home country – Ireland (Gale, 2003). As a young adult, he strongly identifies
with his cultural roots, and feels a natural allegiance to Ireland, its history, and its people. According to Lense, “To
anyone but Yeats this conflation might seem strange, but it was his core belief that:
Many times man lives and dies
Between his two eternities
That of race and that of soul
And ancient Ireland knew it all.
(2006, p.1)
In this
verse, Yeats is attesting to his feelings of loyalty, devotion, and admiration for his homeland and its history. Years later,
he becomes a senator and spends the rest of his life fighting for Irish independence (Gale, 2003).
While reviewing Yeats’ personal struggles
with religion, love and country, it becomes evident that his feelings of alienation originate from a lack of: a religious
identity as a child, love from the woman he desperately wants to marry, and national identity while living in England. Additionally,
he is feeling alienated while transitioning into old-age, and is unable to find ‘unity of being’ in the ‘fractured’
age of Modernism (Gale, 2003). However, in Sailing to Byzantium, Yeats resolves his feelings of alienation by using
symbols and imagery to describe an optimistic picture of the after-life. He offers a blissful vision of the ‘next world’,
where dreams come true, and ‘unity of being’ prevails. Additionally, he focuses on the transcendence of his soul
and its place in a heavenly Paradise. Therefore, it is important to discuss the meaning of these symbols, images, and clues
that Yeats lays out for the reader.
Byzantium is the Justinian city described by Yeats in Dove or Swan, “as an imagined land where Unity of Being
has permeated the entire culture” (Bradford, 1960, p. 110). However, Empson disagrees with Bradford’s claim about
the nature of Byzantium, “Yeats meant Paradise by Byzantium, and therefore is not Justinian’s sixth century city”
(1982, p. 70). Jeffares disagrees with both scholars and contends, “The city has an ancient quality, and the first stanza
is a description of Ireland (1946, p. 48). Finally, in his book A Vision, Yeats states, “I think that in early
Byzantium, maybe never before or since in recorded history, religious, aesthetic and practical life were one” (1966,
p. 279). Yeats does not visit Byzantium in his lifetime, but finds a deep fascination in its glorious history and high achievements
in art (Notopoulos, 1959, p. 315). Despite the controversy over the identity of the historical Byzantium, Yeats is resolving
his feelings of alienation in a Byzantium of his own making. Immediately, he feels a strong connection to this beautiful city,
and embraces its calm and orderly existence (Unity of Being).
As Yeats describes his feelings in the
poem, he expresses his fears of entering old-age. He is just turning sixty while writing Sailing to Byzantium.
According to Empson, “He [Yeats] was faced with the problem of how to behave as a distinguished old father-figure
without hypocrisy, and this problem had thrust itself upon him quite suddenly” (1982, p. 71). Yeats is coming to terms
with the last phase of his life, and there is a feeling of sadness in his description of an old man becoming insignificant
and unimportant. This point is made clear in the first line of the poem,
THAT is no country for old men. The young
In one another's arms, birds in the trees
- Those dying generations - at their song,
The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas,
Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long
Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.
Caught in that sensual music all neglect
Monuments of unageing intellect.
Yeats is creating his own Byzantium where he is resolving
his feelings of fear and alienation. In Byzantium, Yeats’ sheds his old tattered body and allows his soul to sing.
An aged man is but a paltry thing,
A tattered coat upon a stick, unless
Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing
For every tatter in its mortal dress,
Nor is there singing school but studying
Monuments of its own magnificence;
And therefore I have sailed the seas and come
To the holy city of Byzantium.
Yeats is describing the body as a temporary garment that eventually wears out. He emphasizes
the point that the body is a vehicle for the soul, and the soul is set free once the body dies. According to Pruitt, “Sailing
to Byzantium, is a poem that resolves the problem of old age…[the poem] delineates the pursuit of an intellectual,
or if you will, spiritual passion in order to efface the physical infirmities of old age” (1980, p. 150). However, in
the third stanza, Yeats is still feeling “sick with desire” and wants to purge himself of all earthly cravings.
O sages standing in God's
holy fire
As
in the gold mosaic of a wall,
Come
from the holy fire, perne in a gyre,
And
be the singing-masters of my soul.
Consume
my heart away; sick with desire
And
fastened to a dying animal
It
knows not what it is; and gather me
Into
the artifice of eternity.
In
this stanza, Yeats is speaking about death of the body by ‘holy fire’, and the need for cleansing the sickness
in his heart. Haskell contends that the emotional pain in Yeats’ heart emanates from his failed love affair, “For
years Yeats knew what it was like to be ‘sick with desire’ as he pursued a fruitless courtship with the tall,
beautiful, political Maud Gonne. Sailing to Byzantium actually began as a poem about Maud Gonne…” (2001, p. 173).
Lessor disagrees with Haskell’s position and argues that the cause of the sickness in the old man’s heart is his
diminished capacity to “secure sexual gratification” (Fowler, 1967, p. 614). Conversely, Fowler disagrees with
both scholars and maintains,
Yeats
is talking about soul sickness and he is sick with something that is an analogue of fleshy desire, but not identical to it.
Shedding desire of the flesh, he finds in its place the soul’s burning but unquenched desire to know the meaning of
its existence and its destiny. (1967, p. 614).
Assuming Fowler’s position reflects Yeats’ intended meaning, it is important to
understand the symbolism of the ‘Yeatsian’ bird-soul. In the fourth stanza, Yeats is speaking about taking ‘a
form’ that is “out of nature”.
Once
out of nature I shall never take
My
bodily form from any natural thing,
But
such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make
Of hammered gold and gold enamelling
To keep a drowsy Emperor awake;
Or set upon a golden bough to sing
To lords and ladies of Byzantium
Of what is past, or passing, or to come.
The ‘form’ that Yeats is referring to,
is the artistic beauty and aesthetic perfection of a ‘mechanical’ bird of gold. This interpretation is representative
of Modernist themes of deep introspection and shocking self-expression. Yeats’ golden bird is an archetypical vision
of eternal beauty, and it conveys the idea of immortality through art. Thus, bird-soul motif is a Yeatsian technique that
in each case has the same meaning, “bird equals soul, universal, archetypical” (Bradford, 1960, p. 110). Continuing
into the fourth final stanza, Yeats is clarifying his position on the supremacy of art – “art as always for him,
having a supernatural sanction” (Campbell, 1955, p. 585). In comparison, Notopoulus goes one step further by connecting
artistic themes with the ‘dark night of the soul’ and Yeats’ need to find his true self.
Yeats wishes to be the golden bird, singing its new song
of un-aging intellect and beauty…he wishes to be his true self, not a priest or a philosopher, but a poet singing a
song that the singing school of life could not teach him…He found in Byzantine art the exact symbolism to express the
torment of his soul. (1959, p. 320)
Yeats receives criticism about the bird-soul motif when his friend Sturge Moore reads an early
version of the poem, “as magnificent as the first three stanzas are, lets me down in the fourth, as such a goldsmith’s
bird is as much nature as a man’s body” (Allen, 1960, p. 118). In contrast, Empson disagrees with other
scholars about Yeats’ intentions for employing the symbol of the bird-soul, “a mechanical songbird was so
ridiculous as to make a good weapon against his materialistic opponents... critics who labor to inflate this cuckoo till it
sails to Heaven are exposing the poet to underserved distaste” (1982, p. 77). Additionally, Empson claims that as a
child, Yeats has a mechanical bird-toy and fondly remembers playing with it in a ‘Paradise-like state’ (p. 84).
In this interpretation, the bird toy corresponds to Charles Foster Kane’s loving memories of the sled ‘Rosebud’
in the film Citizen Kane (1941, RKO Radio Pictures). Both items symbolize the innocence of youth and the experience
of receiving unconditional love. However, Schwartz offers a differing view of the mechanical bird as an example of high Modernism,
“its fondness for intricacy and ornate elaboration, celebrates human craftsmanship and idealizes nature” (1995,
p. 80). Accordingly, Byzantium represents an artistic, artificial world where art replaces nature. Yeats is making the statement
that he prefers the beauty of art over the beauty of nature. This accounts for Yeats’ desire to transform his soul into
artwork instead of continuing to exist as a self-conscious being. Similarly, Shimiefsky alleges the golden bird is celebrating
Modernist art, “The choice of the perfection of the life over the perfection of the work becomes a betrayal of art”
(1970, p. 712). Alternatively, Campbell offers a spiritual interpretation by positing that “the holy city, the poet,
and ‘the dying animal’ are primarily concerned, not with art, but with the spiritual life visibly represented
by art” (1955, p. 589). Finally, Yeats offers a simple explanation for including the mechanical bird, “I have
read somewhere that in the Emperor’s palace at Byzantium was a tree of gold and silver, and artificial birds that sang”
(Notopoulos, 1945, p. 78). From this comparative review of the bird-soul motif, it seems likely that Yeats wishes to transform
his soul into a supreme form of aesthetic beauty. In Byzantium, he is creating a Paradise of art with individual design that
is sensual and spiritual. Therefore, Yeats is contributing to the Modernist tradition of manifesting new and surprising forms
of introspection and self-expression. However, in Byzantium he is leaving behind Modernist themes of alienation, disappointment,
and materialism that dominate a fractured, unpredictable, and chaotic world. He is transcending a disorderly existence and
creating a perfect Paradise where unity, predictability and order exist.
The phrase Unity of Being is found in Yeats’ published writings
in 1919, “where the concept behind it represents Dante’s ambition: ‘his study was unity of being’”
(Ellis, 1981, p. 9). Thereafter, the idea of spiritual unity remains an important theme in Yeats’ writings.
In Byzantium, a feeling of artistic unity prevails, and therefore, it is reasonable to surmise that a feeling of spiritual
unity also exists. Yeats is assimilating into the perfection of Unity of Being as he takes the form of a bird in the Emperor’s
court. He is no longer suffering from feelings of alienation, sickness of the heart, and fear of aging. His soul is at home
at the side of the Emperor, and he is singing merrily in the trees. It is interesting to note, however, that Yeats’
bird-soul is keeping the Emperor awake. Thus, the question arises: what will happen if the Emperor falls asleep? Is there
an important reason for the Emperor to stay awake? A possible answer is found in the mystical Kabbalistic text, The Zohar.
In this story, The Spirit of God tells Moses, “if I fell asleep for a moment before my time, all the creation would
crumble into dissolution in one instant” (Blavatsky, 1925, Vol. I, p. 374). These corresponding situations are speaking
about the possibility of a ‘supreme force’ falling asleep. In both cases, if the God/Emperor falls asleep, the
consequences are potentially catastrophic. This ‘mystical’ Kabbalistic story is the lynchpin that connects these
two situations. Therefore, is it possible that Yeats’ is creating a variation of this little-known story? He does have
open access to mystical source material, which is one of the benefits of belonging to esoteric organizations. According to
Donoghue, “In 1888, Yeats joined the Esoteric Section of The Theosophical Society. In March 1890, he was initiated into
the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn” (1976, p. 151). Both organizations write extensively about Kabbalah, and both
are familiar with the aforementioned story in The Zohar. So, if the singing bird is the only sound keeping the Emperor
awake, it becomes an indispensible entity that is controlling the fate of Byzantium. Thus, the bird-soul is responsible for
keeping Byzantium alive and maintaining its Unity of Being. In the event the bird stops singing, as in the Kabbalistic account,
the Emperor will fall asleep, and Byzantium ‘would crumble into dissolution in one instant’. Under these conditions,
the bird-soul’s stature is greatly enhanced and the Emperor’s role becomes secondary to the bird. In like manner,
Empson believes that the symbolism of the singing bird is central to understanding Yeats’ relationship with the Godhead,
“The Emperor is clearly a symbol of divinity…That Yeats’ symbol of divinity is in danger of falling asleep
- but for the singing of Yeats’ soul - is a revealing commentary on the poet’s view of God and himself”
(1982, p. 70). Since the Emperor is dependent on the bird-soul to keep him awake, Yeats turns religion on its head by asking
the shocking question: ‘Is God dependent on nature for the universe to exist? (to keep ‘him’ awake). This
question re-directs the discussion into an area of mysticism, and takes the reader into the realm of subjective philosophizing.
Rather than pursuing this line of thought, it is more important to recognize that at the end of the poem, it is Yeats’
bird-soul – and not the Emperor – who is offering ‘divine’ wisdom about ‘what is past, or passing,
or to come’. According to Campbell, “the bird in the Emperor’s palace that Yeats had read about was beautiful
in appearance, enduring, precious, and capable of singing songs that were both beautiful and full of wisdom” (1955,
p. 589). Therefore, the bird-soul is a visionary symbol representing Yeats’ hope for the future of humanity.
Conclusion
Yeats
is pouring a lifetime’s worth of experience into these four stanzas. The poem is truly an artistic masterpiece. Yeats
is explaining his philosophy of life by sharing his experiences and beliefs with the reader. His emotions, fears, hopes and
dreams are finding expression in this poem, and Yeats is telling the reader who he really is. It is not surprising that he
joins The Theosophical Society and The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn since these organizations teach comparative mysticism.
There are traces of Gnosticism, Kabbalah, Hinduism, Platonism, and Buddhism in the tone of his writing. Additionally, Yeats
is blending esoteric themes of metempsychosis (movement of the soul into a person or animal), purging of desires after death,
grand cycles of nature, levels of ‘being’, and mankind’s relationship to the Godhead, to create an original
form of mysticism. Using his vast esoteric knowledge, Yeats has a vision of an ideal heaven that synthesizes the teachings
of Plato (and the Neo-Platonists), Swedenborg, and Theosophy. Thus, in Plato’s Atlantis, the reader finds cultural advancements
and definitions of beauty that parallel Yeats’ Byzantium. In Swedenborg’s writings about heaven, each person creates
their own surroundings from survival of consciousness after-death. Finally, in Theosophy, every individual has several ‘layers
of being’ including the physical, astral, mental, and spiritual body. There are references to these levels of existence
in the poem: ‘aged man’, ‘tattered coat upon a stick’, ‘my soul’, and, ‘It knows
not what it is’. Subsequently, this discussion leads to the subject of reincarnation.
Yeats’ concept of reincarnating as a mechanical
bird is truly unique and original. In Modernist terms, this creative twist fits into category of ‘astonish me!’
Yeats’ is showing his genius as he transforms his soul into a piece of artwork. Here is an ‘astonishing surprise’
for the reader who must attempt to decipher the symbolic meaning of the bird-soul. In terms of reincarnation, Yeats is creating
his own form of mysticism as he allows his human soul to enter into an artificial form. In most mystical teachings, the human
soul evolves to higher levels of ‘being’, except in Hinduism, where the soul sometimes devolves back into a living
animal. Since the bird-soul is a mechanical device and not a living creature, Yeats is showing his preference to become a
piece of art, rather than continuing to live as a human being. He transforms into the epitome of artistic beauty, and is happy
to rid himself of the pain, fear, and emotional suffering of the human condition. He is experiencing true bliss as a bird
in Byzantium, in contrast to the suffering he endures during his lifetime.
As mentioned, Yeats spends most of his life trying to find Unity of
Being. He understands the importance of oneness, and the artistic and spiritual perfection that people are capable of achieving.
Therefore, he creates the ideal environment for people to experience a strong connection between nature and the beautiful
things around them. In this private heaven, Yeats is purifying his soul, releasing his karma, and taking a rest from the cycles
of reincarnation. It is understandable that he sees himself resting in Byzantium, after living a tumultuous life with disappointments
and heartache. However, it is unlikely that Yeats will find eternal rest through the intellect alone (knowing ‘what
is past, or passing, or yet to come’). He also needs emotional nourishment in matters of the heart. Therefore, it seems
likely that while writing this poem, Yeats is experiencing a fusion of the heart and mind. The result is a remarkable work
of creativity.
Works
Cited
Allen, J.L. (1973). The
road to Byzantium: Archetypal criticism and yeats. The Journal of
Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 32 (1),
53-64.
________. (1960). Yeats’s
bird-soul symbolism. Twentieth century literature, 6(3), 117-122.
Blavatsky. H. P. (1925). The secret doctrine. Los Angeles: The Theosophy
Company.
Bradford, C. (1960). Yeats’s
byzantium poems: A study of their development, Modern Language
Association, 75(1), 110-125.
Brown, T. (2003). Treading softly on dreams. The
Independent.
Campbell, H.M. (1955).
Sailing to byzantium. Modern Language Notes, 70(8). 585-589.
Donoghue, D. (1976). Yeats’s golden dawn by george mills harper. The Modern Language
Review,
71(1), 151-152.
Dwyer,
J. (2008). Yeats meets the digital age, full of passion and intensity. The New York
Times, July 20th
edition.
Ellis, S.P.
(1981). Yeats and dante. Comparative Literature, 33(1), 1-7.
Empson, W. (1982). Yeats and byzantium. Grand Street, 1(4), 67-95.
Fowler, D.C. (1967). Lessor on yeats’s sailing to byzantium.
College English, 28(8), 614.
(2003).
Poets corner: William butler yeats. Contemporary Authors Online.
Haskell, D. (2001).
W. B. yeats. The Kenyon Review, 23(2), 168-175.
Hinterholzer,
S. (2007). The concepts of love in william butler yeats poetry. The Irish Literary
Revival, Seminar, University of Innsbrook,
3-7.
Lense, E. (2006). City of souls:
Yeats’s byzantium as an imaginary place. West Virginia
Philological Papers, 53, 61-64.
Jeffares, A. N. & Yeats, W.B. (1946). The byzantine
poems of w.b. yeats. Oxford University
Press, 22(85), 44-52.
Notopoulus,
J.A. (1959). Byzantine platonism in yeats, The Classical Journal, 54(7), 315-321.
_____________. (1945). Sailing to byzantium. The Classical Journal,
41(2), 78-79.
Pruitt, V. (1980).
Return from byzantium: W.B. yeats and the tower. The Johns Hopkins
University Press, 47(1). 149-157.
Schwartz, R.A. (1995). Yeats’s high modernism
and disney’s postmodernism. Journal of
Aesthetic Education, 29(1), 79-84.
Shmiefsky,
M. (1970). Yeats and browning: The shock of recognition. Studies in English
Literature, 10(4), 701-721.
Welles, O. (Director). (1941) Citizen
Kane [Motion Picture]. Los Angeles: RKO Radio
Pictures.
Yeats, W.B. (1965). A vision.
New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.